Drone-Sensed and Sap Flux-Derived Leaf Phenology in a Cool Temperate Deciduous Forest: A Tree-Level Comparison of 17 Species

Understanding the relationship between leaf phenology and physiological properties has important implications for improving ecosystem models of biogeochemical cycling. However, previous studies have investigated such relationships only at the ecosystem level, limiting the biological interpretation and application of the observed relationships due to the complex vegetation structure of forest ecosystems. Additionally, studies focusing on transpiration are generally limited compared to those on photosynthesis. Thus, we investigated the relationship between stem sap flux density (SFD) and crown leaf phenology at the individual tree level using the heat dissipation method, unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV)-based observation, and ground-based visual observation across 17 species in a cool temperate forest in Japan, and assessed the potential of UAV-derived phenological metrics to track individual tree-level sap flow phenology. We computed five leaf phenological metrics (four from UAV imagery and one from ground observations) and evaluated the consistency of seasonality between the phenological metrics and SFD using Bayesian modelling. Although seasonal trajectories of the leaf phenological metrics differed markedly among the species, the daytime total SFD (SFDday) estimated by the phenological metrics was significantly correlated with the measured ones across the species, irrespective of the type of metric. Crown leaf cover derived from ground observations (CLCground) showed the highest ability to predict SFDday, suggesting that the seasonality of leaf amount rather than leaf color plays a predominant role in sap flow phenology in this ecosystem. Among the UAV metrics, Hue had a superior ability to predict SFDday compared with the other metrics because it showed seasonality similar to CLCground. However, all leaf phenological metrics showed earlier spring increases than did sap flow in more than half of the individuals. Our study revealed that UAV metrics could be used as predictors of sap flow phenology for deciduous species in cool, temperate forests. However, for a more accurate prediction, phenological metrics representing the spring development of sap flow must be explored.

Automated summary

This study investigated the relationship between stem sap flux density and crown leaf phenology at the individual tree level in a cool temperate forest in Japan. Ground observations of crown leaf cover showed the highest ability to predict the daytime total sap flux density (SFDday), indicating the predominant role of leaf amount seasonality in sap flow phenology. Among the UAV metrics, Hue had a superior ability to predict SFDday compared with other metrics due to its similar seasonality to ground observations.