Antifreeze proteins as gas hydrate inhibitors

Certain organisms survive low temperatures using a range of physiological changes including the production of antifreeze proteins (AFPs), which have evolved to adsorb to ice crystals. Several of these proteins have been purified and shown to also inhibit the crystallization of clathrate hydrates. They have been found to be effective against structure II (sII) hydrates formed from the liquid tetrahydrofuran, sI and sII gas hydrates formed from single gases, as well as sII natural gas hydrates using a mixture of three gases, as assessed using a variety of instrumentation including stirred reactors, differential scanning calorimetry, nuclear magnetic resonance, Raman spectroscopy, and X-ray powder diffraction. For the most part, AFPs are equal to or more effective than the commercial kinetic hydrate inhibitor (KHI) polyvinylpyrolidone, even under field conditions where saline and liquid hydrocarbons are present. Enclathrated gas analysis has revealed that the adsorption of AFPs to the hydrate surface is distinct from tested commercial KHIs and results in properties that should make these proteins more valuable in some field applications. Efforts to overcome the difficulties of recombinant protein production are ongoing, but in silico models of AFP adsorption to hydrates may offer the opportunity to design commercial KHIs for hydrocarbon recovery and transport with all the attributes of these AFP green inhibitors, including their benefits for human and environmental safety.