Sources of vitamin D for humans

Both vitamin D insufficiency and deficiency are now well-documented worldwide in relation to human health, and this has raised interest in vitamin D research. The aim of this article is therefore to review the literature on sources of vitamin D. It can be endogenously synthesised under ultraviolet B radiation in the skin, or ingested through dietary supplements and dietary sources, which include food of animal and plant origin, as well as fortified foods. Vitamin D is mainly found in two forms, D-3 (cholecalciferol) and D-2 (ergocalciferol). In addition to the D-3 and D-2 forms of vitamin D, 25-hydroxy vitamin D also contributes significantly to dietary vitamin D intake. It is found in many animal-derived products. Fortified food can contain D-3 or D-2 forms or vitamin D metabolite 25-hydroxy vitamin D. Not many foods are a rich source (> 4 mu g/100 g) of vitamin D (D represents D-3 and/or D-2), e.g., many but not all fish (5-25 mu g/100 g), mushrooms (21.1-58.7 mu g/100 g), Reindeer lichen (87 mu g/100 g) and fish liver oils (250 mu g/100 g). Other dietary sources are cheese, beef liver and eggs (1.3-2.9 mu g/100 g), dark chocolate (4 mu g/100 g), as well as fortified foods (milk, yoghurt, fat spreads, orange juice, breakfast grains, plant-based beverages). Since an adequate intake of vitamin D (15 mu g/day set by the European Food Safety Authority) is hard to achieve through diet alone, dietary supplements of vitamin D are usually recommended. This review summarizes current knowledge about different sources of vitamin D for humans.

Automated summary

This article reviews the sources of vitamin D, including endogenous synthesis in the skin, dietary supplements, dietary sources, and fortified foods. Vitamin D is mainly found in two forms, D-3 and D-2, as well as the metabolite 25-hydroxy vitamin D.