期刊
GLOBAL CHANGE BIOLOGY
卷 28, 期 9, 页码 3110-3144出版社
WILEY
DOI: 10.1111/gcb.16060
关键词
bioclimatic variables; global maps; microclimate; near-surface temperatures; soil-dwelling organisms; soil temperature; temperature offset; weather stations
资金
- Research Foundation Flanders [G018919N, W001919N, 12P1819N]
- DOB Ecology
- University of Helsinki, Faculty of Science (MICROCLIM) [7510145]
- European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union [FORMICA 757833]
- Arctic Interactions at the University of Oulu
- Academy of Finland [318930, 337552]
- Maaja vesitekniikan tuki ry.
- Tiina and Antti Herlin Foundation
- Nordenskiold Samfundet
- Societas pro Fauna et Flora Fennica
- Czech Science Foundation [20-28119S, 20-05840Y, GA17-19376S, 21-11487S]
- Czech Academy of Sciences [RVO 67985939]
- National Geographic Society [9480-14, WW-240R-17]
- CISSC (program ICRP) [2397]
- INSF [96005914]
- Scottish Government's Rural and Environment Science and Analytical Services Division
- Qatar Petroleum [QUEX-CAS-QP-RD-18/19]
- European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation program [678841]
- Swiss National Science Foundation [172198, 193645, 31003A_176044]
- Czech Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports [LTAUSA19137]
- Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Russian Federation [FSRZ-2020-0014]
- Independent Research Fund Denmark [8021-00423B, 7027-00133B]
- German Research Foundation [DFG- FZT 118, 202548816, TI 338/14-1, TI 338/14-2, BA 3843/6-1]
- grant project VEGA of the Ministry of Education of the Slovak Republic
- Slovak Academy of Sciences [2/0132/18]
- Forestry Commission
- Universidad Javeriana
- Direccion General de Cambio Climatico del Gobierno de Aragon
- European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under the Marie Skodowska-Curie Grant [657627]
- SNF [407340_172433, 40FA40_154245, 20FI21_148992, 20FI20_173691]
- EU [17841, 774124]
- MCTI/CNPq/FNDCT [68/2013]
- Project 'Como as florestas da Amazonia Central respondem as variacoes climaticas? Efeitos sobre dinamica florestal e sinergia com a fragmentacAo florestal'
- Spanish government [CGL2016-78093-R]
- ANID-FONDECYT [1181745]
- National Science Foundation, Poland [UMO-2017/27/B/ST10/02228]
- South African National Research Foundation
- Australian Research Council
- Slovak Research and Development Agency [APVV-19-0319]
- Instituto Antartico Chileno [INACH_RT-48_16, INACH FR-0418]
- CONICYT [PIA APOYO CCTE AFB170008, PIA AFB170008]
- NERC
- Norwegian Research Council [230970]
- NERC E3 doctoral training partnership grant at the University of Edinburgh [NE/L002558/1]
- Carnegie Trust for the Universities of Scotland
- Gobern of Spain [PERMAPLANET CTM2009-10165-E, ANTARPERMA CTM2011-15565-E, PERMASNOW CTM2014-52021-R]
- University of Alcala
- Spanish Polar Committee
- Autonomous Province of Bolzano (ITA)
- ScotNature
- NERC National Capability LTS-S: UK-SCAPE [NE/R016429/1]
- MSMT [LTAUSA18007]
- Kempe Foundation [JCK-1112, JCK-1822]
- Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports of the Czech Republic within the National Sustainability Programme I (NPU I) [LO1415]
- project for national infrastructure support CzeCOS/ICOS [LM2015061]
- GLORIA-EU [EVK2-CT2000-00056]
- Tiroler Wissenschaftsfonds
- University of Innsbruck
- Sime Darby Foundation
- Jardin Botanico Atlantico [SV-20-GIJON-JBA]
- German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) [01LL0912, 01LG1201M, 01LG1201N]
- Fondecyt [11170516, 1180205]
- ANID [PIA / BASAL FB210006]
- National Parks (DYNBIO) [1656/2015]
- Spanish Research Agency (VULBIMON) [CGL2017-90040-R]
- Swiss National Science Foundation (ICOS-CH Phase 2) [20FI20_173691]
- UK Biotechnology and Biological Research Council [206/D16053]
- Research Foundation Flanders (FWO) [G0H1517N]
- EU Horizon2020 INFRAIA project eLTER-PLUS [871128]
- project LTER-CWN (FFG, FAMP
- E Infrastrukturforderung) [858024]
- Austrian Climate Research Program [ACRP7 - CentForCSink - KR14AC7K11960]
- iDiv by the German Research Foundation [DFG- FZT 118, 202548816]
- Baden-Wurttemberg Ministry of Science, Research and Arts
- Weston Foundation
- ArcticNet
- Natural Sciences and Engineering Council (Canada) [RGPIN-06691]
- Villum Foundation [17523]
- Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports of the Czech Republic [LM2015078, VAN2020/01, CZ.02.1.01/0.0/0.0/16_013/0001708, LTT17033, LTT20017, INTER-TRANSFER LTT19018]
- Bolin Centre for Climate Research, Stockholm University
- Swedish Research Council FORMAS [2014-00530, 2018-00792, 2016-01187]
- Swedish Forest Society Foundation [2018-485-Steg 2 2017]
- German Federal Ministry of Education and Research BMBF [FKZ 031B0516C SUSALPS]
- Oberfrankenstiftung [OFS FP00237]
- Energy Research Fund [NYR-11 - 2019, NYR-18 - 2020]
- UK NERC Independent Research Fellowship [NE/S01537X/1]
- National Science Centre of Poland [2016/21/B/ST10/02271]
- Polish National Centre for Research and Development [Pol-Nor/203258/31/2013]
- MoEFCC, Govt of India (AICOPTAX project) [22018/12/2015/RE/Tax]
- FORMAS [2018-01781, 2018-02700, 2019-00836]
- research infrastructure ICOS-SE
- National Research, Development and Innovation Fund of Hungary [K128441]
- Programa Operativo FEDER 2018 [B1-RNM-163-UGR-18]
- Norwegian Research Council (NORKLIMA grants) [184912, 244525]
- CONICYT-PAI [79170119]
- ANID-MPG [190029]
- project MIUR PON Cluster OT4CLIMA
- Stelvio National Park
- AIAS-COFUND fellowship programme - Marie Skodowska- Curie actions under the European Union's Seventh Framework Pro-gramme for Research, Technological development and Demonstration [609033]
- Aarhus University Research Foundation, Denmark
- EU FP6 NitroEurope [17841]
- EU FP7 ECLAIRE [282910]
- Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine [505, 550, 574, 602]
- GEF-UNEP [NEC05348]
- ENI CBC BSB PONTOS [BSB 889]
- Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research [016.VICI.170.072]
- New Frontiers in Research Fund-Exploration [NFRF-2018-02043]
- NSERC
- Australian Research Council Discovery Early Career Research Award [DE180100570]
- National Science Foundation [DEB 1557094]
- International Center for Advanced Renewable Energy and Sustainability (I-CARES) at Washington University in St. Louis
- ForestGEO
- Tyson Research Center
- UK Natural Environment Research Council through the ShrubTundra Project [NE/M016323/1]
- FORMAS
- VR
- Kempe Foundations - research infrastructure ICOS
- Kempe Foundations - research infrastructure SITES
- CONICET [PIP 112-201501-00609]
- Spanish Ministry of Science [PID2019-110521GB-I00]
- Catalan government [2017-1005]
- French National Research Agency (ANR) [ANR-10-LABX-45]
- General Directorate of State Forests, Warsaw, Poland
- Max Planck Society (Germany)
- RFBR
- Krasnoyarsk Territory
- Krasnoyarsk Regional Fund of Science [20-45-242908]
- Estonian Research Council [PRG609]
- Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation [2015.0047]
- Swedish Research Council (VR)
- fundacion Ramon Areces grant ELEMENTAL-CLIMATE
- Svalbard Environmental Protection Fund [15/128]
- Research Council of Norway [269957]
- Humboldt Fellowship for Experienced Researchers
- RFBR [18-05-60203-Arktika]
- Polish National Science Centre [2017/27/B/NZ8/00316]
- ODYSSEE project (PN-II-ID-JRP-RO-FR-2012) [ANR-13-ISV7-0004]
- Australian Government Research Training Program Scholarship
- Global Challenges program at the University of Wollongong
- ARC the Australian Antarctic Division
- INACH
- project SUBANTECO IPEV 136 (French Polar Institute Paul-Emile Victor)
- Zone Atelier CNRS Antarctique et Terres Australes
- SAD Region Bretagne (Project INFLICT)
- BiodivERsa 2019-2020 BioDivClim call 'ASICS' [ANR-20-EBI5-0004]
- NSF [1556772]
- EU-LEAP-Agri (RAMSES II)
- EU-DESIRA (CASSECS)
- EU-H2020 (SustainSahel)
- AGROPOLIS
- TOTAL Foundations (DSCATT)
- CGIAR (GLDC)
- Russian Science Foundation [18-74-10048]
- Vetenskapsradet [2014-04270]
- ALTER-net multi-site grant, River LIFE project [LIFE08 NAT/S/000266]
- Flexpeil
- Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education [N N305 304840]
- ETH Zurich [FEVER ETH-27 19-1]
- NSERC Canada Graduate Scholarship (Doctoral) Program
- ArcticNet-NCE
- Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cientifico e Tecnologico [141513/2017-9]
- FundacAo Carlos Chagas Filho de Amparo a Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro [E26/200.84/2019]
- SRDA [APVV-16-0325, APVV-20-0365]
- ERDF (CE LignoSilva) [ITMS 313011S735]
- ETH Zurich
- EU Horizon 2020 [641918]
- German Terrestrial Environmental Observatories (TERENO) research program of the Helmholtz Association
- Bavarian Ministry of the Environment and Public Health [UGV06080204000]
- Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG, German Research Foundation) [192626868]
- Swedish National Space Board (SNSB) [95/16]
- CASSECS project by the European Union
- UK Natural Environment Research Council (NERC) [NE/L002558/1]
- MEMOIRE project [PN-III-P1-1.1-PD2016-0925]
- Arctic Challenge for Sustainability II (ArCS II) [JPMXD1420318865]
- Romanian Ministry of Education and Research (CCCDI - UEFISCDI) [PN-III-P2-2.1-PED-2019-4924, PN2019-2022/19270201, 25N BIODIVERS 3-BIOSERV]
- RSF [21-14-00209.]
- Dutch Research Council NWO [863.14.013]
- Australian Research Council [DE140101611]
- Portuguese Science Foundation (FCT) [CEECIND/02509/2018]
- CESAM [UIDP/50017/2020+UIDB/50017/2020]
- FCT/MCTES
- FEDER, within the PT2020 Partnership Agreement
- Compete 2020
- Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation [FPU17/05869]
- Swiss Federal Office for the Environment (FOEN)
- Giacomi foundation
- National Natural Science Foundation of China [41861134039, 41941015, 41877458]
- Agence Nationale de la Recherche (ANR) [ANR-19-CE32-0005-01]
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS)
- Structure Federative de Recherche (SFR) Condorcet (FR CNRS 3417: CREUSE)
- EU INTERACT program
- Inuit of Nunatsiavut
- Co-management Board of Torngat Mountains National Park
- Saxon Switzerland National Park Administration
- Bavarian Forest National Park administration
- BECC - Biodiversity and Ecosystem services in a Changing Climate
- Research Foundation Flanders (FWO-SBO) [S000619N]
- Vinnova [2016-01187, 2018-00792, 2014-04270] Funding Source: Vinnova
- Swiss National Science Foundation (SNF) [31003A_176044] Funding Source: Swiss National Science Foundation (SNF)
- Swedish Research Council [2014-04270] Funding Source: Swedish Research Council
- Swedish National Space Agency (SNSA) [95/16] Funding Source: Swedish National Space Agency (SNSA)
- Marie Curie Actions (MSCA) [657627] Funding Source: Marie Curie Actions (MSCA)
- Formas [2016-01187, 2014-00530, 2018-00792] Funding Source: Formas
- Australian Research Council [DE140101611] Funding Source: Australian Research Council
- Agence Nationale de la Recherche (ANR) [ANR-13-ISV7-0004, ANR-20-EBI5-0004] Funding Source: Agence Nationale de la Recherche (ANR)
Research in global change ecology often relies on global climatic grids, which may not accurately reflect temperature conditions below vegetation canopies and near the ground surface. This study provides global maps of soil temperature at different depths, highlighting the significant differences between soil and air temperature. These maps are valuable for ecological applications, but further improvement in spatiotemporal resolution is needed.
Research in global change ecology relies heavily on global climatic grids derived from estimates of air temperature in open areas at around 2 m above the ground. These climatic grids do not reflect conditions below vegetation canopies and near the ground surface, where critical ecosystem functions occur and most terrestrial species reside. Here, we provide global maps of soil temperature and bioclimatic variables at a 1-km(2) resolution for 0-5 and 5-15 cm soil depth. These maps were created by calculating the difference (i.e. offset) between in situ soil temperature measurements, based on time series from over 1200 1-km(2) pixels (summarized from 8519 unique temperature sensors) across all the world's major terrestrial biomes, and coarse-grained air temperature estimates from ERA5-Land (an atmospheric reanalysis by the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts). We show that mean annual soil temperature differs markedly from the corresponding gridded air temperature, by up to 10 degrees C (mean = 3.0 +/- 2.1 degrees C), with substantial variation across biomes and seasons. Over the year, soils in cold and/or dry biomes are substantially warmer (+3.6 +/- 2.3 degrees C) than gridded air temperature, whereas soils in warm and humid environments are on average slightly cooler (-0.7 +/- 2.3 degrees C). The observed substantial and biome-specific offsets emphasize that the projected impacts of climate and climate change on near-surface biodiversity and ecosystem functioning are inaccurately assessed when air rather than soil temperature is used, especially in cold environments. The global soil-related bioclimatic variables provided here are an important step forward for any application in ecology and related disciplines. Nevertheless, we highlight the need to fill remaining geographic gaps by collecting more in situ measurements of microclimate conditions to further enhance the spatiotemporal resolution of global soil temperature products for ecological applications.
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