Naive Bayes ensemble models for groundwater potential mapping

Groundwater potential maps are important tools for the sustainable management of water resources, especially in agricultural producing countries like Vietnam. Here, we describe the development and application of a spatially explicit ensemble modeling framework that allows for analyzing spatially explicit data for estimating groundwater potential across the Kon Tum Province, Vietnam. Based on this framework, the Naive Bayes (NB) method was integrated with the Bagging (B), AdaBoost (AB), and Rotation Forest (RF) ensemble learning techniques to develop three ensemble models, namely BNB, ABNB, and RFNB. A suite of well yield data and thirteen explanatory variables (i.e., elevation, aspect, slope, curvature, river density, topographic wetness index, sediment transport index, soil type, geology, land use, rainfall, and flow direction and accumulation) were incorporated into the modeling processes over the independent training and validation levels of the single NB model and its three ensembles. Several performance metrics (i.e., area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC), root mean square error (RMSE), accuracy, sensitivity, specificity, negative predictive value, and positive predictive value) demonstrated that the three ensemble models successfully surpassed the single NB model in groundwater potential mapping. The ensemble RFNB model with AUC = 0.849, accuracy = 83.33%, sensitivity = 100%, specificity = 75%, and RMSE = 0.406 exhibited the most accurate performance for mapping groundwater potential in the Kon Tum Province, followed by the ABNB (AUC = 0.844), BNB (AUC = 0.815), and single NB (AUC = 0.786) models, respectively. Further, the correlation based feature selection method identified elevation, slope, land use, rainfall, and STI as the most useful explanatory variables for explaining the distribution of groundwater potential in the Kon Tum Province. The methodology proposed in this case study and the produced potential maps enable managers to align water use patterns with the shared benefits and costs of different users and to develop strategies for sustainable groundwater exploitation, preservation, and management.

Automated summary

In this study, a spatially explicit ensemble modeling framework was developed to estimate groundwater potential in Kon Tum Province, Vietnam, using different ensemble learning techniques. The ensemble models outperformed the single NB model in terms of mapping accuracy, with the RFNB model showing the highest accuracy. Feature selection identified key variables for explaining groundwater potential distribution in the region. The proposed methodology and potential maps can assist managers in aligning water use patterns and developing sustainable groundwater management strategies.