Maternal effects in mammals: Broadening our understanding of offspring programming

The perinatal period is a sensitive time in mammalian development that can have long-lasting consequences on offspring phenotype via maternal effects. Maternal effects have been most intensively studied with respect to two major conditions: maternal diet and maternal stress. In this review, we shift the focus by discussing five major additional maternal cues and their influence on offspring phenotype: maternal androgen levels, photoperiod (melatonin), microbiome, immune regulation, and milk composition. We present the key findings for each of these topics in mammals, their mechanisms of action, and how they interact with each other and with the maternal influences of diet and stress. We explore their impacts in the contexts of both predictive adaptive responses and the developmental origins of disease, identify knowledge gaps and research opportunities in the field, and place a particular emphasis on the application and consideration of these effects in non-model species and natural ecological systems.

Automated summary

This review discusses the impact of five major maternal cues on offspring phenotype during the perinatal period: maternal androgen levels, photoperiod, microbiome, immune regulation, and milk composition. The mechanisms of action for each of these cues in mammals are explored, along with their interactions with each other and with maternal diet and stress. The review also highlights the importance of considering these effects in non-model species and natural ecological systems.