Insight into the amoxicillin resistance, ecotoxicity, and remediation strategies

Increased use of antibiotics has led to the contamination of the water bodies. Pharmaceutically active compounds can lead to severe effects including the production of antibiotic-resistant microbes, endocrine disruption, toxicity to aquatic organisms, and genotoxicity. Though the antibiotics are found in the aquatic environment at a very low concentration ranging from nanogram to microgram per liter, but exert adverse effects and contribute to pollution. A global medical crisis is unfolding as antibiotics lose effectiveness against a growing number of bacterial pathogens. Among the antibiotics, amoxicillin is one of the frequently used antibiotics for the treatment of both gram-positive and negative bacteria including the infections of the middle ear. It is most commonly used in human and veterinary medicine around the world. Amoxicillin's impact on human health and the environment is uncertain hence it is regarded as an emerging contaminant. Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) do not efficiently remove amoxicillin which contributes to its presence in drinking water and water bodies. Various physicochemical processes and bioremediation are used for the removal of amoxicillin, but antibiotics, being hydrophobic and lipophilic are recalcitrant to degradation and cannot be completely removed from the environment, but in-depth studies are important for the development of better and sustainable technology for cleaner environment. The present review gives an insight into the amoxicillin detection, development of resistance along with its impact and ecotoxicity on living beings. Amoxicillin removal using physicochemical parameters, nanoparticles, phytoremediation, and via the use of bacteria and algae have been discussed in the paper.

Automated summary

The increased use of antibiotics has led to contamination of water bodies, with drugs like amoxicillin posing potential risks to human health and the environment. Current methods for removing antibiotics from water are not fully effective, necessitating further research for the development of improved technologies for environmental cleanup.