Risk Factors Associated with Vitamin D Status among Older Puerto Rican Adults

Background: Vitamin D deficiency has been associated with health problems globally, but there is limited information on vitamin D status and associated risk factors among adults in underserved populations. Objective: This study aimed to identify risk factors for vitamin D deficiency/insufficiency among Puerto Rican adults from the Boston Puerto Rican Health Study (BPRHS). Methods: A total of 822 adults (45?75 y, at baseline) were included in these analyses. Deficiency was defined as serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D] <30 and insufficiency as 30 to <50 nmol/L. Dietary intake was assessed with a validated FFQ. Associations between risk factors, including dietary vitamin D, supplement use, ancestry, skin pigmentation, months in the past year spent in a southern climate, and serum 25(OH)D were assessed with multivariable general linear models. Results: Approximately 13% of participants were deficient in 25(OH)D and another 43% insufficient. Skin pigment was associated with 25(OH)D using 3 measures, greater African ancestry (? ? SE) (?7.74 ? 2.91, P = 0.01); interviewer assessed dark or medium, compared with white, skin tone, (?5.09 ? 2.19, P = 0.02 and ?5.89 ? 1.58, P < 0.001, respectively); and melanin index of the upper inner right arm, assessed using a spectrophotometer (?2.04 ? 0.84, P = 0.02). After adjusting for ancestry, factors associated with lower serum 25(OH)D included smoking (?4.49 ? 1.58, P = 0.01); BMI (?0.21 ? 0.10, P = 0.04); and spring compared with autumn blood draw (?4.66 ? 1.68, P = 0.004). Factors associated with higher serum 25(OH)D included female sex compared with male (4.03 ? 1.58, P = 0.01); dietary vitamin D intake ?g/d (0.71 ? 0.25, P < 0.004); vitamin D supplement use (4.50 ? 1.87, P = 0.02); income to poverty ratio (0.01 ? 0.01, P = 0.06), and months in a southern climate during the past year (0.96 ? 0.56, P = 0.09). Conclusions: Vitamin D deficiency/insufficiency was prevalent in this Puerto Rican population living in the northeastern USA. Several factors were associated with this, which may assist in identifying those at risk. Interventions are needed to improve serum 25(OH)D concentration, particularly among those with limited exposure to sunlight. J Nutr 2021;151:999?1007.

Automated summary

This study found that 13% of adults in the Boston Puerto Rican Health Study were deficient in vitamin D, 43% were insufficient. Factors such as skin pigmentation, ancestry, smoking, BMI, etc. were associated with 25(OH)D levels.