Challenging the electrostatic σ-hole picture of halogen bonding using minimal models and the interacting quantum atoms approach

Among the different noncovalent interactions, halogen bonds have captured wide attention in the last years. Their stability has been rationalized in electrostatic terms by appealing to the sigma-hole concept, a charge-depleted region that is able to interact favorably with electron rich moieties. This interpretation has been questioned, and in this work a set of anionic halogen model systems are used to shed some light on this issue. We use the interacting quantum atoms method, which provides an orbital invariant energy decomposition in which pure electrostatic terms are well isolated, and we complement our insights with the analysis of electrostatic potentials (ESPs) as well as with traditional descriptors of charge accumulation like the Laplacian of the electron density. The total electrostatic interaction between the interacting species is surprisingly destabilizing in many of the systems examined, demonstrating that although sigma-holes might be qualitatively helpful, much care has to be taken in ascribing the stability of these systems to electrostatics. It is clearly shown that electron delocalization is essential to understand the stability of the complexes. The evolution of atomic charges as the aggregates forms reveals a charge transfer picture in which the central, sigma-hole bearing halogen acts as a mere spectator. These systems may then be not far from engaging in a classical 3c-4e interaction. Since the presence of a sigma-hole as characterized by the ESP mapped on a suitable molecular envelope isosurface does not guarantee attractive electrostatic interactions, we encourage to employ a wider perspective that takes into account the full charge distribution.

Automated summary

In this study, a set of anionic halogen model systems were used to investigate the stability of halogen bonds. It was found that the total electrostatic interaction in many cases is destabilizing, highlighting the importance of electron delocalization in understanding the stability of these systems. The presence of a sigma-hole does not guarantee attractive electrostatic interactions, emphasizing the need for a broader perspective that considers the full charge distribution.