Scalable Fabrication of >90 cm2 Perovskite Solar Modules with >1000 h Operational Stability Based on the Intermediate Phase Strategy

In addition to high efficiencies, upscaling and long-term operational stability are key pre-requisites for moving perovskite solar cells toward commercial applications. In this work, a strategy to fabricate large-area uniform and dense perovskite films with a thickness over one-micrometer via a two-step coating process by introducing NH4Cl as an additive in the PbI2 precursor solution is developed. Incorporation of NH4Cl induces the formation of the intermediate phases of x[NH4+]center dot[PbI2Clx](x)(-) and HPbI3-xClx, which can effectively retard the crystallization rate of perovskite leading to uniform and compact full-coverage perovskite layers across large areas with high crystallinity, large grain sizes, and small surface roughness. The 5 x 5 and 10 x 10 cm(2) perovskite solar modules (PSMs) based on this method achieve a power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 14.55% and 10.25%, respectively. These PSMs also exhibit good operational stability with a T-80 lifetime (the time during which the solar module PCE drops to 80% of its initial value) under continuous light illumination exceeding 1600 h (5 x 5 cm(2)) and 1100 h (10 x 10 cm(2)), respectively.

Automated summary

The study introduces a strategy to fabricate large-area uniform and dense perovskite films with the addition of NH4Cl to the precursor solution. The resulting perovskite solar modules demonstrate high efficiency and good operational stability, exceeding 1600 hours of T-80 lifetime for the 5 x 5 cm^2 module.