Rechargeable alkaline zinc-manganese oxide batteries for grid storage: Mechanisms, challenges and developments

Rechargeable alkaline Zn-MnO2 (RAM) batteries are a promising candidate for grid-scale energy storage owing to their high theoretical energy density rivaling lithium-ion systems (similar to 400 Wh/L), relatively safe aqueous electrolyte, established supply chain, and projected costs below $100/kWh at scale. In practice, however, many fundamental chemical and physical processes at both electrodes make it difficult to achieve commercially competitive energy density and cycle life. This review presents a detailed and timely analysis of the constituent materials, current commercial status, electrode processes, and performance-limiting factors of RAM batteries. We also examine recently reported strategies in RAM and related systems to address these issues through additives and modifications to the electrode materials and electrolyte, special ion-selective separators and/or coatings, and unconventional cycling protocols. We conclude with a critical summary of these developments and discussion of how future studies should be focused toward the goal of energy-dense, scalable, and cost-effective RAM systems.

Automated summary

RAM batteries have the potential for high energy density and cycle life, but face challenges in achieving commercial competitiveness. Strategies such as additives and modifications to electrode materials and electrolytes, as well as special cycling protocols, can address these performance-limiting factors.