Progress in low-temperature solid oxide fuel cells with hydrocarbon fuels

Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) are important electric generators due to their high energy efficiencies and fuel flexibilities. However, the high operation temperature ( > 800 degrees C) results in high system cost/complexity and poor long-term durability. Recently, decreasing the operating temperature of SOFCs to the low-temperature range (<= 650 degrees C) has attracted intensive attention, especially for the direct utilization of hydrocarbons as fuels. This review summarizes the latest progress in hydrocarbon fueled SOFCs working at <= 650 degrees C, mainly focusing on the challenges and strategies associated with electrolytes, anodes, and cathodes. It highlights the requirement for highly active and carbon/sulfur resistant anode and high ionic conductive electrolytes to gain a superior performance at a lower temperature.