Non-metallic charge carriers for aqueous batteries

Charge carriers are fundamental components of batteries that determine battery chemistry and performance. Non-metallic charge carriers provide an alternative to metallic charge carriers in aqueous batteries, enabling fast kinetics, long cyclic lifetime and low manufacturing costs. Non-metallic charge carriers not only can be inserted into the electrode framework, where they establish covalent-ionic bonds, but can also serve as reversible redox centres for charge transfer, resulting in superior performance compared with metallic charge carrier-based devices. In this Review, we discuss cationic and anionic non-metallic charge carriers, their physicochemical properties, charge storage mechanisms and electrode interactions. We examine battery configurations of non-metallic charge carrier-based devices and analyse battery performance based on costs, capacity, working potential, rate capability and cycling stability. Finally, we highlight design strategies for aqueous batteries based on non-metallic charge carriers and future applications. This Review discusses non-metallic charge carriers for aqueous batteries, investigating fundamental mechanisms of charge storage and electrode interactions, as well as battery design and performance.

Automated summary

Non-metallic charge carriers play a crucial role in aqueous batteries, offering improved performance and reduced manufacturing costs. Through insertion into electrode frameworks and serving as reversible redox centers, non-metallic charge carriers demonstrate superior performance compared to metallic counterparts.