A simple recipe for red bole formation in continental flood basalt provinces: weathering of flow-top and flow-bottom breccias

Continental flood basalt (CFB) provinces such as the Deccan Traps show numerous inter-flow horizons called boles, most commonly red or brown. These have been variably interpreted as altered glassy bases of basalt flows, paleosols developed on exposed flow tops, altered volcanic ash beds, or local inter-flow sediments. We believe that each of these mechanisms may apply, singly or in combination, to specific red boles, and propose an additional mechanism, namely the weathering of flow-top and flow-bottom breccias. The breccias are inherently highly prone to weathering, and evidence for the mechanism is a close observed correspondence between breccia zones and red boles. The mechanism explains the absence of red boles in the compound pahoehoe flows which characteristically lack breccias, and their abundance in rubbly pahoehoe and 'a'a lava flows. The latter observation has been misinterpreted as indicating significant eruptive hiatuses and a low eruption frequency. Importantly, even all breccia-derived boles do not have the same significance: those derived from flow-top breccias are paleosols, formed by subaerial weathering during eruptive breaks. Those derived from flow-bottom breccias, thus not in contact with the atmosphere, were formed due to groundwater ingress along flow contacts and fractures. These boles have developed slowly over long time periods. Significant development of all bole types must also have occurred in post-volcanism time and is arguably ongoing even today in the exposed and unexposed parts of CFB sequences. Recognizing multiple and complex origins of superficially similar-looking red boles is of critical importance in CFB volcanology and flow stratigraphy, and a warning sign to straightforward application of mineral chemical, mineral magnetic, geochemical, and similar data on boles to interpreting paleoweathering, paleoclimates, and paleoenvironments.