Nitrification and urease inhibitors improve rice nitrogen uptake and prevent denitrification in alkaline paddy soil

Increasing evidence indicates that nitrification is a vital factor in crop growth and nitrous oxide emission. Nitrification and urease inhibitors have been demonstrated to be effective in inhibiting the nitrification process and are widely used as fertilizer additives in agricultural soils. However, the effects of these inhibitors on rice N uptake and N2O production through denitrification in paddy soils remain unclear. In the present work, we compared the influences of nitrification inhibitors dicyandiamide (DCD), nitrapyrin (2-chloro-6-(trichloromethyl) pyridine; NP) and N-(n-butyl) thiophosphoric triamide (NBPT) on rice growth, the fate of urea nitrogen (N), and the abundances and activities of ammonia oxidizers and denitrifiers. The fate of urea N was determined by the N-15 isotope labeling technique, and the abundances of ammonia oxidizers and denitrifiers were determined using qPCR. All three inhibitors improved rice growth mainly due to the increase in urea N use efficiency. Urea N uptake was negatively correlated with nitrification. The growth of ammonia-oxidizing bacteria (AOB), important in nitrification, was directly blocked by DCD. Additionally, NP and NBPT impeded the growth of ammonia-oxidizing archaea (AOA). In addition, NP significantly increased the microbial biomass to promote more residual urea N in soil and increased soil N transformation. NBPT significantly inhibited urea hydrolysis indirectly affecting nitrification. All three inhibitors decreased the potential denitrification rate (PDR) at the rice heading stage but had little effect on the denitrifier gene abundance except for nitrapyrin, which decreased the nirK gene abundance. DCD and NBPT may reduce the denitrification activity by decreasing the denitrification substrate (NO3-) concentration. These results suggest that DCD, NP and NBPT have a beneficial effect on improving rice N uptake and have the potential to reduce N2O generation through denitrification.