Application of the ecosystem services concept at the local level - Challenges, opportunities, and limitations

Theories, models, and studies of ecosystem services (ESs) are expected to be applicable to conservation practices. However, applying the ES concept becomes challenging, especially in terms of implementing theory into the local-level activities. We analyzed ten participatory mapping workshops involving conservation experts and local stakeholders to investigate theoretical challenges emergent in the ES concept implementation. Based on our results, we argue that local stakeholders are able to address practical problems in mapping ESs that are debated in the literature as major theoretical challenges to the concept. In particular, it considers the theoretical challenges of distinguishing ESs from the other levels of the ESs cascade; challenges in monetary valuation of the ESs, operationalization of service-providing units, service-benefiting areas, and ESs that are co-produced with humans, and the consequences of including the stakeholders' subjective perspectives in mapping ESs. We claim that these challenges can be addressed to a certain extent by defining realistic objectives for the ES mapping, followed by clear rules adjusted for local conditions. The ES concept may serve as an effective tool for engaging local stakeholders in constructive discussions about nature and spatial planning. However, participatory mapping has limitations in relation to providing a comprehensive assessments of ESs.