Longitudinal Development of Executive Functioning and Spoken Language Skills in Preschool-Aged Children With Cochlear Implants

Purpose: Auditory deprivation has downstream effects on the development of language and executive functioning (EF) in prelingually deaf children with cochlear implants (Cis), but little is known about the very early development of EF during preschool ages in children with Cls. This study investigated the longitudinal development of EF and spoken language skills in samples of children with normal hearing (NH; N = 40) or Cls (N = 41) during preschool ages. Method: Participants were enrolled in the study between ages 3 and 6 years and evaluated annually up to the age of 7 years. Mixed-effects models were used to evaluate and predict growth of spoken language and EF skills over time. Results: Children with Cls scored lower than NH peers on language measures but improved significantly over time. On performance-based neurocognitive measures of controlled attention, inhibition, and working memory, children with Cls scored more poorly than the sample of NH peers but comparable to norms, whereas on a parent report behavior checklist, children with Cls scored more poorly than both NH peers and norms on inhibition and working memory. Children with Cis had poorer EF than the sample of NH peers in most domains even after accounting for language effects, and language predicted only the verbal working memory domain of EF. In contrast, EF skills consistently predicted language skills at subsequent visits. Conclusions: Findings demonstrate that, despite significant improvement over time, some domains of EF (particularly parent-reported EF) and language skills in children with Cls lag behind those of children with NH during preschool ages. Language delays do not fully explain differences in EF development between children with Cls and NH peers during preschool ages, but EF skills predict subsequent language development in children with Cls.