Pushing the Limits of Metastability in Semiconducting Perovskite Oxides for Visible-Light-Driven Water Oxidation

A synthetic route has been discovered to thermodynamically unstable, i.e., metastable, Sn(II)-perovskite oxides that have been highly sought after as lead-free dielectrics and small bandgap semiconductors. A highly facile exchange of Sn(II) is found by using a low melting SnCl2/SnF2 peritectic flux, yielding mixed A-site (Ba1-xSnx)ZrO3 and mixed A- and B-site (Ba1-xSnx)(Zr1-yTiy)O-3 solid solutions that exhibit a very high metastability, with up to 60% Sn(II) cations and a calculated reaction energy for decomposition of up to -0.3 eV atom(-1). Kinetic stabilization of the higher Sn(II) concentrations is achieved by the high cohesive energy of the perovskite compositions containing Zr(IV) and mixed Zr(IV)/Ti(IV) cations. Significantly red-shifted bandgaps are found with increasing Sn(II) substitution, enabling the optical absorption edge to be broadly tuned from similar to 3.90 to similar to 1.95 eV. Percolation pathways are calculated to occur for BSZT compositions with >12.5% Sn(II) and >25% Ti(IV) cations. High photocatalytic rates are found for molecular oxygen production for compositions which exceed the percolation thresholds, wherein extended diffusion pathways should open up across the structure and the charge carriers become delocalized rather than trapped. These results establish the critical importance of synthetically accessing metastable semiconductors for the discovery of advanced optical and photocatalytic properties.