What are the nature and formation conditions of hydroxy-interlayered minerals (HIMs) in soil?

Primary minerals of the parent material undergo weathering during the formation of terrestrial soils to varying extent. As a result, secondary minerals develop, which comprise, among many others, hydroxy-interlayered minerals (HIMs). These minerals have formed by interlayering of hydroxy-metal complexes (especially of Al3+, also Mg2+, Fe2+/3+) into micas, expansible 2:1 phyllosilicates and forming oligomers, or by weathering of primary chlorite. The degree of interlayer filling and the stability of these fillings affect several physico-chemical soil properties, for instance the cation exchange capacity. Although many studies have been conducted on formation, occurrence, and properties of HIMs in soil during the last decades, several challenges still exist. These challenges include analytical identification and quantification of HIMs in soil, the nature of the interlayer filling and the identification of favorable conditions in soil for the formation of HIMs. In order to deepen the understanding of formation, properties, and fate of HIMs in soil, we critically reviewed the available literature. Based on the review, we recommend using a new structural model that enables quantification of hydroxy-interlayered smectite in soil by X-ray diffractometry, laboratory experiments on the formation and preservation of different types of interlayers and considering the temporal and spatial dimension of the formation of HIMs in soil in more detail.