β3-Adrenoceptors in the normal and diseased urinary bladder-What are the open questions?

beta(3)-Adrenoceptor agonists are used in the treatment of overactive bladder syndrome. Although the relaxant response to adrenergic stimulation in human detrusor smooth muscle cells is mediated mainly via beta(3)-adrenoceptors, the plasma concentrations of the therapeutic dose of mirabegron, the only clinically approved beta(3)-adrenoceptor agonist, are considerably lower than the EC50 for causing direct relaxation of human detrusor, suggesting a mechanism of action other than direct relaxation of detrusor smooth muscle. However, the site and mechanism of action of beta(3)-adrenoceptor agonists in the bladder have not been firmly established. Postulated mechanisms include prejunctional suppression of ACh release from the parasympathetic nerves during the storage phase and inhibition of micro-contractions through beta(3)-adrenoceptors on detrusor smooth muscle cells or suburothelial interstitial cells. Implications of possible desensitization of beta(3)-adrenoceptors in the bladder upon prolonged agonist exposure and possible causes of rarely observed cardiovascular effects of mirabegron are also discussed. Linked Articles This article is part of a themed section on Adrenoceptors-New Roles for Old Players. To view the other articles in this section visit http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bph.v176.14/issuetoc