Most Earth-surface calcites precipitate out of isotopic equilibrium

Oxygen-isotope thermometry played a critical role in the rise of modern geochemistry and remains extensively used in (bio-)geoscience. Its theoretical foundations rest on the assumption that O-18/O-16 partitioning among water and carbonate minerals primarily reflects thermodynamic equilibrium. However, after decades of research, there is no consensus on the true equilibrium O-18/O-16 fractionation between calcite and water ((18)alpha(cc/w)). Here, we constrain the equilibrium relations linking temperature, (18)acc/w, and clumped isotopes (Delta(47)) based on the composition of extremely slow-growing calcites from Devils Hole and Laghetto Basso (Corchia Cave). Equilibrium (18)alpha(cc/w) values are systematically similar to 1.5% greater than those in biogenic and synthetic calcite traditionally considered to approach oxygen-isotope equilibrium. We further demonstrate that subtle disequilibria also affect Delta 47 in biogenic calcite. These observations provide evidence that most Earth-surface calcites fail to achieve isotopic equilibrium, highlighting the need to improve our quantitative understanding of non-equilibrium isotope fractionation effects instead of relying on phenomenological calibrations.