Magnetic resonance thermometry and its biological applications - Physical principles and practical considerations

Most parameters that influence the magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) signal experience a temperature dependence. The fact that MRI can be used for non-invasive measurements of temperature and temperature change deep inside the human body has been known for over 30 years. Today, MR temperature imaging is widely used to monitor and evaluate thermal therapies such as radio frequency, microwave, laser, and focused ultrasound therapy. In this paper we cover the physical principles underlying the biological applications of MR temperature imaging and discuss practical considerations and remaining challenges. For biological tissue, the MR signal of interest comes mostly from hydrogen protons of water molecules but also from protons in, e.g., adipose tissue and various metabolites. Most of the discussed methods, such as those using the proton resonance frequency (PRF) shift, T-1, T-2, and diffusion only measure temperature change, but measurements of absolute temperatures are also possible using spectroscopic imaging methods (taking advantage of various metabolite signals as internal references) or various types of contrast agents. Currently, the PRF method is the most used clinically due to good sensitivity, excellent linearity with temperature, and because it is largely independent of tissue type. Because the PRF method does not work in adipose tissues, T-1-and T-2-based methods have recently gained interest for monitoring temperature change in areas with high fat content such as the breast and abdomen. Absolute temperature measurement methods using spectroscopic imaging and contrast agents often offer too low spatial and temporal resolution for accurate monitoring of ablative thermal procedures, but have shown great promise in monitoring the slower and usually less spatially localized temperature change observed during hyperthermia procedures. Much of the current research effort for ablative procedures is aimed at providing faster measurements, larger field-of-view coverage, simultaneous monitoring in aqueous and adipose tissues, and more motion-insensitive acquisitions for better precision measurements in organs such as the heart, liver, and kidneys. For hyperthermia applications, larger coverage, motion insensitivity, and simultaneous aqueous and adipose monitoring are also important, but great effort is also aimed at solving the problem of long-term field drift which gets interpreted as temperature change when using the PRF method. (C) 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.