Synergistic effects of tropical cyclones on forest ecosystems: a global synthesis

Tropical cyclones are large-scale strong wind disturbance events that occur frequently in tropical and subtropical coastal regions and often bring catastrophic physical destruction to ecosystems and economic disruption to societies along their paths. Major tropical cyclones can infrequently move into the midaltitudes and inland areas. Ecologically, tropical cyclones have profound impacts on diversity, structure, succession and function of forest ecosystems. The ecological effects are both dramatic and subtle. The dramatic effects can be visible, noticeable and to some extent predictable over the short-term and relatively well documented in the literature. However, the subtle effects are often invisible, complex and at smaller scale relatively unpredictable in the long-term. Many factors, meteorologic, topographic and biologic, simultaneously interact to influence the complexity of patterns of damage and dynamics of recovery. I present a global synthesis on the effects of tropical cyclones on forest ecosystems and the complexity of forest responses, with particular attention on the response to large hurricanes in the neotropics and the temperate North America, and strong typhoons on the subtropical and temperate forests in the East and Southeast Asia. Four major aspects provide on organizational framework for this synthesis: (1) consistent damage patterns, (2) factors that influence response patterns and predict damage risks, (3) complexity of forest responses and recovery, and (4) the long-term effects. This review reveals highly variable and complex effects of tropical cyclones on forest ecosystems. A deep understanding of the synergistic effects of tropical cyclones is essential for effective forest management and biodiversity conservation.