Self-standing NASICON-type electrodes with high mass loading for fast-cycling all-phosphate sodium-ion batteries

A scalable strategy has been realized to produce anodic NaTi2(PO4)(3) and cathodic Na3V2(PO4)(3) supported on carbon nanotube fabrics (CNFs) as binder-free, metal current collector-free, carbon additive-free, bendable and self-standing electrodes for sodium-ion batteries. The NaTi2(PO4)(3) and Na3V2(PO4)(3) particles are not only anchored on the surface of the CNFs but also uniformly embedded in the framework of the CNFs via a two-step coating process followed by annealing treatment. In the relevant voltage range, the high electrochemical stability of the 3D electron conduction network of carbon nanotubes in the self-standing electrodes was confirmed by in situ Raman spectroscopy. Both electrodes possessed a thickness of around 130 m and a high mass loading of greater than 7.5 mg cm(-2) and exhibited a high specific capacity, high rate capability and long lifespan in both half cells and all-phosphate full cells. The all-phosphate full cells delivered more than half of their theoretical capacity even at a high current rate of 100C. Besides, a capacity retention of 75.6% over 4000 cycles at a rate of 20C was achieved. The reason for the capacity fade in the full cell during long-term cycling was the formation of a solid electrolyte interphase layer, as was indicated by XRD, TEM and in operando NMR measurements. Furthermore, the promising practical possibilities of the electrodes and all-phosphate sodium-ion battery were demonstrated by a prototype flexible pouch cell and by stacking multiple electrodes in a laboratory-scale battery.