Deoxynivalenol and nivalenol occurrence and exposure assessment

Deoxynivalenol (DON) and nivalenol (NIV) are common dietary contaminants in most temperate regions of the world The frequency and levels of exposure will vary by geographic location, annual variations in rainfall patterns, national wealth and related agricultural and regulatory infrastructure, dietary diversity and food sufficiency DON contamination is more frequent and at higher levels than NIV, though chronic exposure to both is predicted to occur in many parts of the world In addition acute poisoning episodes are reported, particularly from China, and it is important to have the tools to assess both chronic and acute exposure This review describes both traditional epidemiology and the development of biomarkers to assess exposure The biomarker approaches are at an early stage, and it will be important to assess the applicability of these approaches in different settings and at different exposure levels It is hoped that some of the developmental 'omics' technologies will support both 'exposure biomarker' and 'effect biomarker' development