Bismuth-modified electrodes for lead detection

This review describes the use of electrochemical sensors for lead detection, focusing on sensors modified with bismuth (Bi) that are more environment friendly than mercury electrodes. We report and discuss the experimental variables that affect lead measurement using Bi-modified electrodes. We highlight the practical problems of lead contamination encountered during sample treatment and lead detection, in order to give a valid, rounded picture. In addition, we report and discuss different treatments needed for lead detection in natural samples (food, clinical and environmental) using Bi sensors. (C) 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.