Opposite effects of male and female helpers on social tolerance and proactive prosociality in callitrichid family groups

Across a broad variety of primate species (including lemurs, New World monkeys, Old World monkeys, and apes), proactive prosociality and social tolerance are linked to allomaternal care, reaching the highest levels in the cooperatively breeding callitrichid monkeys and humans. However, considerable variation exists within callitrichids, and the aim of this study was to identify factors that explain this variation. Male and female callitrichids pursue different reproductive strategies, leading males to play a more prominent role in allomothering. We thus hypothesised that prosociality and tolerance may be affected by group composition and sex differences. We analysed social tolerance and proactive prosociality data in 49 common marmosets and found that the number of female helpers in a group was negatively correlated with group-level prosociality and tolerance. At the individual level, rearing experience or age enhanced prosociality in male, but not in female helpers. These findings are consistent with the more ambivalent role of female helpers in infant rearing. Adding data from 5 cotton-top and 5 lion tamarins strengthened this pattern. The same factor which explains variation in prosociality and tolerance across primate species, i.e. allomaternal care, is therefore also linked to variation within common marmosets, and presumably callitrichid monkeys in general.