Cell and organ printing turns 15: Diverse research to commercial transitions

Fifteen years ago, the field of cell and organ printing began with a few research groups looking to take newly developed direct-write tools and apply them to living cells. Initial experiments demonstrated cell viability and functionality post-deposition. Recently, research has begun in earnest to create three-dimensional cellular constructs that mimic both the heterogeneous structure and function of natural tissue. Several companies are now marketing cell printers, expanding access to a wider group of scientists and accelerating the pace of development. This article describes the past decade and a half of research by showing examples of some of the most sophisticated work, comparing the approaches and tools used in the field, and predicting the products that will arrive in the not too distant future.