Specialized nursery pollination mutualisms as evolutionary traps stabilized by antagonistic traits

We examine the conditions for the transition from antagonism to mutualism between plants and their specialists nursery pollinators in a reference case which is the Trollius europaeus-Chiastocheta interaction. The mechanistic model we developed shows that a specialization of T. europaeus on Chiastocheta could be the result of an attempt to escape over-exploitation by closing its flower. The pressure for such an escape increases with the parasite's frequency and its pollination efficiency but decreases in the presence of alternative pollinators. The resulting specialization is a priori an unstable one, leading either to strong evolutionary oscillations, or to evolutionary suicide due to over-exploitation of the plants. It becomes stable if the plants develop a defense mechanism to regulate their parasite's population size and limit seed-exploitation. The development of a counter-measure by the latter can destabilize the mutualism depending on the costs linked to such a trait. On the other hand, we find that a specialization on a purely mutualistic basis would require a preexisting high diversity of flower-opening within the population. (C) 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.