Gender differences in multiple sclerosis: Cytokines and vitamin D

The disproportional increase of the female:male ratio in relapse-onset (relapsing remitting (RR) and secondary progressive (SP)) multiple sclerosis (MS) patients in the last 20 years has further raised scientific interest in gender difference in MS. It has been suggested that the immune system, especially cytokines, plays an important role in the gender issue, as can also be seen in other autoimmune diseases. The immune system is influenced by different factors including hormones and seasonal fluctuations (vitamin D). This overview will highlight the gender differences in MS, with emphasis on the cytokines and vitamin D. (C) 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.