Quantification of internal phosphorus load in large, partially polymictic and mesotrophic Lake Simcoe, Ontario

Hypoxia and cyanobacteria still occur occasionally in large, mesotrophic Lake Simcoe, and total phosphorus (TP) concentration has remained relatively constant despite external nutrient load reduction. This may indicate a potential internal P source. Internal load as redox-dependent P release from bottom sediments is hard to determine in such a relatively shallow and mostly mixed lake. This study represents the first attempt to quantify internal P loading over many years for the three main sections of Lake Simcoe. Internal load was determined (a) as in situ estimate based on TP increases between July and October and (b) as gross estimate from the product of experimentally determined P release rates and hypoxic extent of sediment surfaces in space and time. Hypoxic extent was quantified (1) as the hypoxic factor determined from dissolved oxygen profiles below the level of 3.5 mg/L, and (2) as active sediment area release factor (AA) modeled from summer euphotic TP concentration, which is especially useful in the mixed sections. Annual internal load for the whole lake was determined as a near constant 62.2 metric tonnes/yr (86 mg/m(2)/yr) for 1980-2011 using the gross estimates of the AA approach and 88 t/yr before and 53 t/yr after external load abatement and zebra mussel invasion using in situ estimates. Means of in situ and AA-based estimates for 2000-2011 are in close agreement except for polymictic Cook's Bay. These estimates are 45 to 89% of external load, which suggests that internal loading is an important source of P in Lake Simcoe. (C) 2013 International Association for Great Lakes Research. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.