X-ray absorption spectroscopy and X-ray Raman scattering of water and ice; an experimental view

Here we present a review of X-ray absorption spectroscopy and X-ray Raman scattering with the perspective to understand the spectra of water including changes with temperature, mass of the water molecule and presence of monovalent ions. The different detection schemes are discussed and it is concluded that transmission X-ray absorption measurements, using a small area where the thickness is uniform, and X-ray Raman scattering give the most reliable spectra. Different model systems are discussed such as the surface and bulk of ice and various adsorbed monolayer structures on metal surfaces. Published by Elsevier B.V.