Recent functional insights into the role of (p)ppGpp in bacterial physiology

The alarmones guanosine tetraphosphate and guanosine pentaphosphate (collectively referred to as (p) ppGpp) are involved in regulating growth and several different stress responses in bacteria. In recent years, substantial progress has been made in our understanding of the molecular mechanisms of (p) ppGpp metabolism and (p) ppGpp-mediated regulation. In this Review, we summarize these recent insights, with a focus on the molecular mechanisms governing the activity of the RelA/SpoT homologue (RSH) proteins, which are key players that regulate the cellular levels of (p) ppGpp. We also discuss the structural basis of transcriptional regulation by (p) ppGpp and the role of (p) ppGpp in GTP metabolism and in the emergence of bacterial persisters.