European protected areas: Past, present and future

The Habitats Directive celebrates its 20th anniversary in 2012. The influence of the Directive now extends across 27 Member States, compared to just 12 when it was first adopted in May 1992. The sites now cover more than 17% of the land surface of the Member States. However, in spite of their deep roots in human history, reviewed here, and their long-time justification on the basis of intrinsic value, protected areas must face the economic challenges of the modern era. There is a need for policy that can guide decision-making in relation to their continued designation, protection and management, including the ecosystem services that they deliver and taking into account the needs of the local communities who live and work in and around them. Growing pressures include their potential exploitation for economic and commercial benefit and the continued threats from competition over land use and climate change. (C) 2012 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.