SNP analyses of postprandial responses in (an) orexigenic hormones and feelings of hunger reveal long-term physiological adaptations to facilitate homeostasis

Background: The postprandial responses in (an)orexigenic hormones and feelings of hunger are characterized by large inter-individual differences. Food intake regulation was shown earlier to be partly under genetic control. Objective: This study aimed to determine whether the postprandial responses in (an) orexigenic hormones and parameters of food intake regulation are associated with single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in genes encoding for satiety hormones and their receptors. Design: Peptide YY(PYY), glucagon-like peptide 1 and ghrelin levels, as well as feelings of hunger and satiety, were determined pre- and postprandially in 62 women and 41 men (age 31 +/- 14 years; body mass index 25.0 +/- 3.1 kg/m(2)). Dietary restraint, disinhibition and perceived hunger were determined using the three-factor eating questionnaire. SNPs were determined in the GHRL, GHSR, LEP, LEPR, PYY, NPY, NPY2R and CART genes. Results: The postprandial response in plasma ghrelin levels was associated with SNPs in PYY (215G > C, P < 0.01) and LEPR (326A > G and 688A > G, P < 0.01), and in plasma PYY levels with SNPs in GHRL (-501A > C, P < 0.05) and GHSR (477G > A, P < 0.05). The postprandial response in feelings of hunger was characterized by an SNP-SNP interaction involving SNPs in LEPR and NPY2R (668A > G and 585T > C, P < 0.05). Dietary restraint and disinhibition were associated with an SNP in GHSR (477G > A, P < 0.05), and perceived hunger with SNPs in GHSR and NPY (477G > A and 204T > C, P < 0.05). Conclusions: Part of the inter-individual variability in postprandial responses in (an) orexigenic hormones can be explained by genetic variation. These postprandial responses represent either long-term physiological adaptations to facilitate homeostasis or reinforce direct genetic effects.