Observation and Modeling of the Microwave Brightness Temperature of Snow-Covered Frozen Lakes and Wetlands

Small-scale variability in land cover influences both the snow cover and the microwave response of a snow-covered surface. Since low microwave frequencies penetrate below the snowpack, the differing dielectric properties of soil and water have a significant effect on passive microwave observations and therefore cause errors in the interpretation of snow parameters from satellite data. Here, the brightness temperature of snow- and ice-covered lakes and wetlands is studied using airborne and spaceborne microwave radiometer observations and modeling of brightness temperature from in situ measurements. We aim at assessing the validity of the multilayer Helsinki University of Technology (HUT) snow emission model on lake-and wetland-rich areas and at examining the error from omission of water bodies in the forward modeling of brightness temperature. The results indicate that the model can estimate brightness temperatures of lakes and wetlands with rms errors of 12-28 K and 9-16 K, respectively. The inclusion of lakes in the satellite-scale simulations reduces the simulation error in 52%-100% of the simulated areas at 18.7 and 36.5 GHz. The inclusion of wetlands further improves simulations, resulting in an rms error of satellite scenes of 4-5 K at 18.7 and 36.5 GHz (5-10 K without lakes and wetlands). However, the natural variability of brightness temperature over water bodies is not entirely captured particularly at 10.65 GHz. The inclusion of lakes and wetlands can be used to reduce errors in the forward model and thus increase the accuracy of snow parameters derived from satellite data.