Effectors of plant parasitic nematodes that re-program root cell development

Plant parasitic nematodes infect the roots of a wide range of host plants. Migratory endo-or ectoparasites feed off the roots temporarily, but sedentary endoparasites are biotrophic parasites that invade roots and establish a permanent feeding site by re-directing root cell development. Feeding sites develop after injection of nematode effectors into plant cells through a stylet. In this review, we concentrate on several recently-identified effectors and discuss their possible functions in redirecting root cell development. We give examples of effectors that regulate host gene expression, interact with specific host proteins or mimic plant signalling molecules.