Response of sessile cells to stress: from changes in gene expression to phenotypic adaptation

A better understanding of the genotypic and phenotypic adaptation of sessile (biofilm-associated) microorganisms to various forms of stress is required in order to develop more effective antibiofilm strategies. This review presents an overview of what high-throughput transcriptomic analyses have taught us concerning the response of various clinically relevant microorganisms (including Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Burkholderia cenocepacia and Candida albicans) to treatment with antibiotics or disinfectants. In addition, several problems associated with identifying gene expression patterns in biofilms in general and their implications for identifying the response to stress are discussed (with a focus on heterogeneity in microbial biofilms and the role of small RNAs in microbial group behavior).