Neuroprotective action of raloxifene against hypoxia-induced damage in mouse hippocampal cells depends on ERα but not ERβ or GPR30 signalling

Raloxifene is the selective estrogen receptor modulator (SERM) currently used in clinical practice to activate estrogen receptors (ERs) in bone tissue and to antagonise ERs in breast and uterine cancers. Little is known, however, about mechanisms of action of raloxifene on hypoxia-induced neuronal cell damage. The aim of the present study was to investigate the neuroprotective potential of raloxifene against hypoxia-induced damage of mouse hippocampal cells in primary cultures, with a particular focus on raloxifene interactions with the classical nuclear ERs (ER alpha, ER beta) and the recently identified membrane ER G-protein-coupled receptor 30 (GPR30). In this study, 18 h of hypoxia increased hypoxia inducible factor 1 alpha (Hif1 alpha) mRNA expression and induced apoptotic processes, such as loss of the mitochondrial membrane potential, activation of caspase-3 and fragmentation of cell nuclei based on Hoechst 33342 staining. These effects were accompanied by reduced ATPase and intracellular esterase activities as well as substantial lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release from cells exposed to hypoxia. Our study demonstrated strong neuroprotective and anti-apoptotic caspase-3-independent actions of raloxifene in hippocampal cells exposed to hypoxia. Raloxifene also inhibited the hypoxia-induced decrease in Era mRNA expression and attenuated the hypoxia-induced rise in Er beta and Gpr30 mRNA expression levels. Impact of raloxifene on hypoxia-affected Er alpha mRNA was mirrored by fluctuations in the protein level of the receptor as demonstrated by Western blot and immunofluorescent labelling. Raloxifene-induced changes in Er beta mRNA expression level were in parallel with ER beta immunofluorescent labeling. However, changes in Gpr30 mRNA level were not reflected by changes in the protein levels measured either by ELISA, Western blot or immunofluorescent staining at 24 h post-treatment. Using specific siRNAs, we provided evidence for a key involvement of ER alpha, but not ER beta or GPR30 in neuroprotective action of raloxifene against hypoxia-induced cell damage. This study may have implications for the treatment or prevention of hypoxic brain injury and the administration of current or new generations of SERMs specific to ERa. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled Sex steroids and brain disorders. (C) 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.