TGFβ and BMP signaling in cardiac cushion formation: Lessons from mice and chicken

Cardiac cushion formation is crucial for both valvular and septal development. Disruption in this process can lead to valvular and septal malformations, which constitute the largest part of congenital heart defects. One of the signaling pathways that is important for cushion formation is the TGF beta superfamily. The involvement of TGF beta and BMP signaling pathways in cardiac cushion formation has been intensively studied using chicken in vitro explant assays and in genetically modified mice. In this review, we will summarize and discuss the role of TGF beta and BMP signaling components in cardiac cushion formation. (C) 2012 International Society of Differentiation. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.