Journal
CLINICAL IMMUNOLOGY
Volume 149, Issue 2, Pages 182-191Publisher
ACADEMIC PRESS INC ELSEVIER SCIENCE
DOI: 10.1016/j.clim.2013.02.011
Keywords
Autoimmunity; Chemicals; Smoking; Infectious agents; Commensal bacteria; Microbiota
Categories
Funding
- National Institutes of Health [K08 AI095318]
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Sex differences in autoimmune diseases are evolutionarily tied to the fact that the female immune system is confronted with intense alterations during menstrual cycles, pregnancy and childbirth. These events may be associated with breaches in the mucosal epithelial layers that are shielding us from environmental factors. Associations between environmental agents and autoimmune diseases have been described extensively in prior studies. Little evidence, however, exists for sex-specific environmental effects on autoimmune diseases. In this review, we summarize studies involving this often-neglected aspect. We give examples of environmental factors that may influence the sex bias in autoimmunity. We conclude that most studies do not give insight into sex-specific environmental effects due to the influence of gender-selective social, occupational or other exposures. Prospective studies are needed in order to determine true sex-biased environmental influences. Finally, humanized murine models might aid in better understanding the mechanisms involved in sex-specific environmental effects on autoimmune diseases. (C) 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
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