A method to feed individual bees (Hymenoptera : Apiformes) known amounts of pesticides

We devised a simple method (flower) to feed bees individually, and compared it with two other methods commonly used (film canister and glass vial). We tested the three methods on two solitary species, Osmia lignaria and Megachile rotundata, and one social species, Apis mellifera, under four different light regimes ( natural, artificial, plant growth and darkness). The flower method was the most effective for all three bee species: 90 - 95% of the bees fed under natural light, 80 - 95% under artificial light, 75 - 100% under plant growth light, and 45 - 70% in darkness. Percent success was 0 - 50% with the film canister method, and 0 - 60% with the glass vial method. The flower method may allow more comprehensive future evaluation of pesticide effects on bees.