In vivo muscle activity in the hindlimb of the arboreal lizard, Chamaeleo calyptratus: general patterns and the effects of incline

Arboreal animals often move on surfaces with variable and steep inclines, but the changes in hindlimb muscle activity in response to incline are poorly understood. Thus, we studied the hindlimb muscle activity in the arboreal specialist, Chamaeleo calyptratus, moving up and down 45degrees inclines and on a horizontal surface. We quantified electromyograms (EMGs) from nine hindlimb muscles, and correlated EMGs with three-dimensional hindlimb kinematics. Kinematics changed little with incline, but the EMGs changed substantially. Most of the changes in EMGs were for amplitude rather than timing, and the EMGs of the hip and thigh muscles had more conspicuous changes with incline than those of the lower limb muscles. Unlike most other vertebrates, chameleons flexed the knee substantially during the first half of stance while the foot was anchored to the perch, and the amplitude of two large knee flexors increased when moving uphill compared to level and downhill. Thus, knee flexion in early stance probably contributes significantly to propulsion in C calyptratus. During stance, the caudofemoralis EMGs of C calyptratus correlated well with femur retraction, knee flexion and posterior femur rotation, and their amplitudes were higher on uphill and level surfaces than on the downhill surface. During the second half of stance, iliotibialis EMGs correlated well with knee extension, and their amplitude was highest on the uphill surface and lowest on the downhill surface. Many of the muscles in the hindlimb of C calyptratus changed activity with incline in a manner similar to the propulsive limb muscles in mammals. Although muscle strain often increases when animals need more power to move uphill, the minimal changes in the hindlimb kinematics of C calyptratus with incline imply little change in muscle strain.