Holding back and holding behind: grade retention and students' non-academic and academic outcomes

The present study examined the implications of grade retention (repeating a grade) and social promotion (automatic promotion to the next grade each year) for high school students' academic and non-academic outcomes. Based on data from 3261 high school students, structural equation modeling demonstrated that, after controlling for interactions with other factors, demographic co-variates and ability, there were significant (p < 0.001) main effects of grade retention. In terms of academic factors, grade retention was a significant negative predictor of academic self-concept and homework completion and a significant positive predictor of maladaptive motivation and weeks absent from school. In terms of non-academic factors, grade retention was a significant negative predictor of self-esteem but was not significantly associated with relationship with peers. In follow-up analyses using a sub-sample of retained (n = 186) and promoted (n = 186) students matched by ability, age and gender, findings were confirmed and with stronger effects on some factors. For nations and systems emphasizing grade retention and for those emphasizing social promotion, findings have implications for educational practice, policy and theories of child and academic development.