Towards the 'ubiquitous eco-city': An analysis of the internationalisation of eco-city policy and practice

The global mainstreaming of urban sustainability policy, since the early 2000s, points to a new phenomenon: the 'ubiquitous eco-city'. Its key features - based on the analysis of a census of 178 initiatives - include: the significant, global proliferation of eco-city initiatives; increased international knowledge transfer activities involving both public and private actors; the centrality of 'carbon discourse' guiding concepts, policy and practice; the marrying of 'green' with 'smart' technological systems; and a focus on achieving environmental innovation through economic growth. Among the implications is the need to moderate the 'ubiquitous eco-city' paradigm with strong local contextualisation and social sustainability measures.