A skew model for the evolution of sociality via manipulation: why it is better to be feared than loved

Concession-based reproductive skew models predict that social groups can form via persuasion, whereby dominant individuals forfeit some reproduction to subordinates as an incentive to stay and help. We have developed an alternative skew model based on manipulation, whereby dominant individuals coerce subordinates into staying and helping by imposing costs on their independent reproductive prospects. Stable groups can evolve under a much wider range of genetic and ecological conditions under this manipulation model than under concession models. We describe evidence that various forms of preemptive and ongoing manipulation occur in nature and we discuss the implications of the model for the development of a general theory of social evolution.