Identifying bacteria in human urine: Current practice and the potential for rapid, near-patient diagnosis by sensing volatile organic compounds

Urinary tract infection (UTI) represents a significant burden for the National Health Service. Extensive research has been directed towards rapid detection of UTI in the last thirty years. A wide range of microbiological and chemical techniques are now available to identify and quantify bacteria in urine. However, there is a clear and present need for near, rapid, sensitive, reliable analytical methods, preferably with low-running costs, that could allow early detection of UTI and other diseases in urine. Here we review the state of the art of current practice for the detection of bacteria in urine and describe the advantages of the recent e-nose technology as a potential tool for rapid, near-patient diagnosis of UTI, by sensing volatile organic compounds (VOCs).