New crystalline silicon ribbon materials for photovoltaics

The objective of this article is to review, in relation to photovoltaic applications, the current status of crystalline silicon ribbon technologies as an alternative to technologies based on wafers originating from ingots. Increased wafer demand, the foreseeable silicon feedstock shortage, and the need for a substantial module cost reduction are the main issues that must be faced in the booming photovoltaic market. Ribbon technologies make excellent use of silicon, as wafers are crystallized directly from the melt at the desired thickness and no kerf losses occur. Therefore, they offer a high potential for significantly reducing photovoltaic electricity costs as compared to technology based on wafers cut from ingots. However, the defect structure present in the ribbon silicon wafers can limit material quality and cell efficiency. We will review the most successful of the ribbon techniques already used in large scale production or currently in the pilot demonstration phase, with special emphasis on the defects incorporated during crystal growth. Because of the inhomogeneous distribution of defects, mapped characterization techniques have to be applied. Al and P gettering studies give an insight into the complex interaction of defects in the multicrystalline materials as the gettering efficiency is influenced by the state of the chemical bonding of the metal atoms. The most important technique for improvement of carrier lifetimes is hydrogenation, whose kinetics are strongly influenced by oxygen and carbon concentrations present in the material. The best cell efficiencies for laboratory-type (17%-18%; cell area: 4 cm(2)) as well as industrial-type (15%-16%; cell area: greater than or equal to80 cm(2)) ribbon silicon solar cells are in the same range as for standard wafers cut from ingots. A substantial cost reduction therefore seems achievable, although the most promising techniques need to be improved.