β-carotene interferes with ultraviolet light A-induced gene expression by multiple pathways

Ultraviolet light A (UVA) exposure is thought to cause skin aging mainly by singlet oxygen (O-1(2))-dependent pathways. Using microarrays, we assessed whether pre-treatment with the O-1(2) quencher beta-carotene (betaC; 1.5 muM) prevents UVA-induced gene regulation in HaCaT human keratinocytes. Downregulation of growth factor signaling, moderate induction of proinflammatory genes, upregulation of immediate early genes including apoptotic regulators and suppression of cell cycle genes were hallmarks of the UVA effect. Of the 568 UVA-regulated genes, betaC reduced the UVA effect for 143, enhanced it for 180, and did not interact with UVA for 245 genes. The different interaction modes imply that betaC/UVA interaction involved multiple mechanisms. In unirradiated keratinocytes, gene regulations suggest that betaC reduced stress signals and extracellular matrix (ECM) degradation, and promoted keratinocyte differentiation. In irradiated cells, expression profiles indicate that betaC inhibited UVA-induced ECM degradation, and enhanced UVA induction of tanning-associated protease-activated receptor 2. Combination of betaC-promoted keratinocyte differentiation with the cellular UV response caused synergistic induction of cell cycle arrest and apoptosis. In conclusion, betaC at physiological concentrations interacted with UVA effects in keratinocytes by mechanisms that included, but were not restricted to O-1(2) quenching. The retinoid effect of betaC was minor, indicating that the betaC effects reported here were predominantly mediated through vitamin A-independent pathways.