Polychrome glass from Etruscan sites:: first non-destructive characterization with synchrotron μ-XRF, μ-XANES and XRPD

This work is devoted to the characterization of a suite of very rare, highly decorated and coloured glass vessels and beads from the VII to the IV century BC. The most serious difficulty in developing this study was that any sampling - even micro-sampling - was absolutely forbidden. As a consequence, the mineralogical and chemical nature of chromophores and opacifiers present in these Iron Age finds were identified by means of the following synchrotron-based, strictly non-destructive, techniques: micro X-ray fluorescence (mu-XRF), Fe K-edge micro X-ray absorption near edge spectroscopy (mu-XANES) and X-ray powder diffraction (XRPD). The mu-XRF mapping evidenced high levels of Pb and Sb in the yellow decorations and the presence of only Sb in the white and light-blue ones. Purple and black glass show high amounts of Mn and Fe, respectively. The XRPD analyses confirmed the presence of lead and calcium antimonates in yellow, turquoise and white decorations. Fe K-edge mu-XANES spectra were collected in different coloured parts of the finds, thus enabling the mapping of the oxidation state of these elements across the samples. In most of the samples iron is present in the reduced form Fe2+ in the bulk glass of the vessels, and in the oxidized form Fe3+ in the decorations, indicating that these glass artefacts were produced in at least two distinct processing steps under different furnace conditions.